Home > Horse Care > Intro to Vet Tech > Alaska Icelandic Horse Club (AIHA)
April 11, 2007
Practice Test
1. The balling gun delivers what type of
medication?
Medication that’s in capsule or bolus (large tablet) form.
2. Complications of the use of the balling
gun include what?
Severe trauma (laceration, abscessation) to the pharynx, epiglottis,
and oral cavity may resut from poor technique. If head is elevated
beyond its natural position, the risk of accidental aspiration
omtp the trachea will be increased.
3. The balling gun should or should not
be used to deliver meds to a calf or kid or lamb.
The balling gun is NOT a suitable instrument for use on young animals
or Horses.
4. Which route(s) can be used for ruminal
intubation?
The oral route is used most often. The nasogastric route, used in horses,
is not commonly used in ruminants, the nasal passages of cattle are of
smaller diameter than horses. This limits the tube diameter that can be
used.
5. Injection site blemishes must be trimmed
out of a food carcass, thus decreasing the value of the meat. True or
false.
True. This has resulted in a trend of avoiding the IM injections into
the muscles that yield valuable cuts of meat (hindlegs) and the development
of subcutaneously injectable drugs (when possible) to replace intramuscular
medications.
6. The standard area for routine TB testing
in a ruminant is:
In the caudal tail fold. The right and left caudal tail folds are best
seen by elevating the tail; this puts tentions on the tail folds, which
are located at the base of the tail.
7. Intramammary infusion is usually performed
with the animal in what position?
The standing position is preferred for all species. Dairy animals usually
require minimal restraint, but occasionally the pain associated with some
mastitis cases causes the animal to resent handling of the affected galdn.
Applying a tail hold may be helpful in these cases. Non-dairy animals
should be approached with caution and will require more secure more secure
restraint, typically using some form of chute restraint for
cattle.
8. Ruminants may spontaneously regurgitate
when they are heavily sedated. True or false.
True. Decreasing the volume of rumen contents may reduce this risk
9. Which two methods of local anesthesia
provide denervation of the flank area?
1. The L Block The L Block is a type of field block used to sensitize
the flank for standing flank laparotomies. Local anesthetic is deposited
in an inverted “L” configuration in the flank. The anesthetic
must be deposited in several layers. Large volumes of local anesthetic
are required; often up to 100 ml of 2% solution are required in cattle.
The inverted “L” forms a wall of anesthesia that protects
the surgical field. It is the simplest technique for desensitizing the
flank and therefore is the most commonly employed.
2. Paravertebral Block. This technique uses multiple specific nerve blocks to create a large region of flank anesthesia. Inneravation of the flank arises from the spinal nerves of T13, L1, and L2 spinal segments. These nerves can be blocked near their exit from the vertebral column at a “paravertebral” position. The paravertebral block desensitizes all layers of the flank, from the skin down to the peritoneum.
10. In order to sensensitize both horns
for dehorning surgery, how many nerve blocks (total) must be performed?
Two in cattle and four in goats.
11. Define urolithiasis.
Urolithiasis is the formation of urinary stones (calculi) and it affects
cattle, sheep, and goats. Urinary stones are composed of various types
and amounts of minerals and mucoproteins. Obstructive urolithiasis occurs
when the urinary stones become lodged in the urinary tactct and produce
a partial or complete obstruction in the passage of urine. Urinary tract
obstruction is seen most often in pet sheep and goats, animals
being fitted for shows, and feedlot animals. There is a definite utritional
role in the development of urinary calculi, which are composed primarily
of calcium salts and phosphate compounds. The typical diet of affected
animals is high in concentrates (grains) low in roughage, improperly balanced
(low) calcium to phosphorus ratio, and often high in magnesium. Limited
access to water may lead to concentrated urine
and therefore contribute to the problem. A hereditary predisposition might
also be involved.
12. What is a common surgical procedure
for treating urolithiasis?
Perineal urethrostomy has historically been the surgical procedure of
choice. It may be Performed under general anesthesia or heavy sedation
with anesthesia provided by an epidural. The patient may be standing or
dorsal or lateral recumbancy. The perineal area is clipped and surgically
prepped. The surgeon makes a midline incision between the anus and scrotum
to expose the penis. Dissection is continued to incise the penis
and open the urethra. The exposed urethra is then carefully sutured to
the skin to produce a permanent, new urethral opening in the perineal
area. A Foley catheter is placed for several days to maintain the new
opening during the initial postoperative period. Since the new opening
is proximal to the sigmoid flexure and wider than the distal penile urethra,
stones should theoretically void with less risk of obstruction. Unfortunately,
there is a high incidence of stricture formation associated with the Procedure;
the procedure also prevents breeding by intact males. Urine scalding of
the thighs is common after the procedure. Perineal urethrostomy is presently
considered to be a salvage procedure. Currently, cystotomy and tube cystomomy
are preferred surgical procedures. Long term survival is better, and breeding
function can be
preserved.
13. C-Section is often performed in sheep
and goats (and camelids) in what position?
In small ruminants surgery is typically performed through the left flank
with the female in right lateral recumbancy. The legs can be restrained
in extension with cotton ropes or with nylon ropes and padding. Tying
the head may be stressful; having an assistant restrain the head is preferable.
The head should not be restrained in an elevated position in case regurgitation
occurs. Placing a towel over the eyes is helpful.
14. While assisting a ruminant with a difficult
birth, personnel should wear gloves to Prevent zoonotic disease spread.
True or false.
True
15. A ruminant suffering from ruminal tympany
will display which body shape from
behind?
Accumulation of gas within certain portions of the gastrointestinal tract
(tympany or ‘bloat’) can produce asymmetry and enlargement
of the abdominal wall. Severe Abdominal gas accumulation causes enlargement
of the paralumbar fossa on both sides of the animal, changing shape from
a pear to an apple. The most common location for bloat, the rumen, appears
as an enlargement of the left paralumbar fossa: this has been referred
to as a “papple” shape, where the left side resembles
an apple and the right side a pear.
16. At what age is a goat kid usually disbudded
(dehorned?)
It is in the best interest of the animal to remove the horns at the earliest
possible age. Removal of mature horns has a higher complication rate,
including increased hemorrhage, risk of infection (sinusitis and possible
brain abscessation) and incomplete removal. In horned animals each horn
growns from a separate horn bud located on top of the head between the
ears. The horn buds may be present at birth or become palpable as two
hard lumps under the skin in the first few weeks. An
irregular whorl of hair often covers each developing horn bud. Removal
of the horn buds, before actual horn buds begins, is called “disbudding.”
At this early stage, the horn buds are not yet attached to the skull,
and therefore the frontal sinus is not exposed when they are removed.
17. At what age is a calf typically dehorned?
See attached handout. This is from milkproduction.com
18. Name two skin diseases that occur in a ruminant.
Cutaneous papilloma “warts.” Hypodermal larvae “warbles.
Ringworm stressed animals, 2-3 months improve on their own.
19. Describe ketonemia (cattle) and pregnancy
toxemia (sheep and goats).
1. Ketonemia (This is directly from
the Merck Manual. It is as is; however, I did read this quite carefully.
Ketosis is a common disease of adult cattle. It typically occurs in dairy
cows in early lactation and is most consistently characterized by partial
anorexia and depression. Rarely, it occurs in cattle in late gestation,
at which time it resembles pregnancy toxemia of ewes. In addition to inappetence,
signs of nervous dysfunction, including pica, abnormal licking, incoordination
and abnormal gait, bellowing, and aggression are occasionally seen. The
condition is worldwide in distribution, but is most common where dairy
cows are bred and managed for high production.
Etiology and Pathogenesis:
The pathogenesis of bovine ketosis is incompletely understood, but it
requires the combination of intense adipose mobilization and a high glucose
demand. Both of these conditions are present in early lactation, at which
time negative energy balance leads to adipose mobilization and milk synthesis
creates a high glucose demand. Adipose mobilization is accompanied by
high blood serum concentrations of nonesterified fatty acids (NEFA). During
periods of intense gluconeogenesis, a large portion of serum NEFA is directed
to ketone body synthesis in the liver. Thus, the clinicopathologic characterization
of ketosis includes high serum concentrations of NEFA and ketone bodies
and low concentrations of glucose. In contrast to many other species,
cattle with hyperketonemia do not have concurrent acidemia. The serum
ketone bodies are acetone, acetoacetate, and ß-hydroxybutyrate (BHB).
There is speculation that the pathogenesis of ketosis cases occurring
in the immediate postpartum period is slightly different than that of
cases occurring closer to the time of peak milk production. Cases of ketosis
in very early lactation are usually associated with fatty liver. Both
fatty liver and ketosis are probably part of a spectrum of conditions
associated with intense fat mobilization in cattle. Ketosis cases occurring
closer to peak milk production, which usually occurs at 4-6 wk postpartum,
may be more closely associated with underfed cattle experiencing a metabolic
shortage of gluconeogenic precursors than with excessive fat mobilization.
The exact pathogenesis of the clinical signs is not known. They do not
appear to be associated directly with serum concentrations of either glucose
or ketone bodies. There is speculation that they may be due to metabolites
of the ketone bodies.
Epidemiology:
All dairy cows in early lactation (first 6 wk) are at risk of ketosis.
The incidence in lactation is estimated at 5-16%, but incidence in individual
herds varies substantially. Ketosis occurs in all parities (although it
appears to be less commin in primiparous animals) and does not appear
to have a genetic predisposition, other than being associated with dairy
breeds. Cows with excessive adipose stores (body condition score =3.75
out of 5.0) at calving are at increased risk of ketosis, compared with
those with lower body condition scores. Lactating cows with hyperketonemia
(subclinical ketosis—serum BHB concentrations >12 mg/dL) are
at increased risk of developing clinical ketosis, compared with cows with
lower serum BHB concentrations.
Clinical Findings:
In cows maintained in confinement stalls, reduced feed intake is usually
the first sign of ketosis. If rations are offered in components, cows
with ketosis often refuse grain before forage. In group-fed herds, reduced
milk production, lethargy, and an “empty” appearing abdomen
are usually the signs of ketosis noticed first. On physical examination,
cows are afebrile and may be slightly dehydrated. Rumen motility is variable,
being hyperactive in some cases and hypoactive in others. In many cases
there are no other physical abnormalities. CNS disturbances are noted
in a minority of cases. These include abnormal licking and chewing, with
cows sometimes chewing incessantly on pipes and other objects in their
surroundings. Incoordination and gait abnormalities occasionally are seen,
as are aggression and bellowing. These signs occur in a clear minority
of cases, but because the disease is so common, finding animals with these
signs is not unusual.
Diagnosis:
The clinical diagnosis of ketosis is based on presence of risk factors
(early lactation), clinical signs, and ketone bodies in urine or milk.
When a diagnosis of ketosis is made, a thorough physical examination should
be performed because frequently ketosis occurs concurrently with other
peripartum diseases. Especially common concurrent diseases include displaced
abomasum, retained fetal membranes, and metritis. Rabies and other CNS
diseases are important differential diagnoses.
Cow-side tests for the presence of ketone bodies in urine or milk are
critical for diagnosis. Caution should be exercised in the use of such
tests within 48 hr after calving. Due to the large surge in plasma NEFA
at calving, a positive test for ketones is very common during this period.
The majority of commercially available test kits are based on the presence
of acetoacetate or acetone in milk or urine. Dipstick tests are convenient,
but those designed to detect acetoacetate or acetone in urine are not
suitable for milk testing. All of these tests are read by observation
for a particular color change. In a given animal, urine ketone body concentrations
are always higher than milk ketone body concentrations. Trace to mildly
positive results for the presence of ketone bodies in urine do not signify
clinical ketosis. Without clinical signs, such as partial anorexia, these
results indicate subclinical ketosis. Milk tests for acetone and acetoacetate
are more specific than urine tests. Positive milk tests for acetoacetate
and/or acetone usually indicate clinical ketosis. A dipstick designed
to detect BHB in milk, available in Japan and Europe, is more sensitive
than milk tests for acetone and acetoacetate and may be useful for monitoring
incidence of subclinical ketosis.
Treatment:
Treatment is aimed at reestablishing normoglycemia and reducing serum
ketone body concentrations. Bolus IV administration of 500 mL of 50% dextrose
solution is a common therapy. This solution is very hyperosmotic and,
if administered perivascularly, results in severe tissue swelling and
irritation, so care should be taken to assure that it is given IV. Bolus
glucose therapy generally results in rapid recovery, especially in cases
occurring near peak lactation. However, the effect frequently is transient
and relapses are common. Administration of glucocorticoids including dexamethasone
or isoflupredone acetate at 5-20 mg/dose, IM, generally results in a more
sustained response. Glucose and glucocorticoid therapy may be repeated
daily as necessary. Propylene glycol (250-400 g/dose, PO, [~8-14 oz])
acts as a glucose precursor and may be effective as ketosis therapy, especially
in mild cases or in combination with other therapies. This dose may be
administered twice per day. Overdosing propylene glycol leads to CNS depression.
Ketosis cases occurring within the first 1-2 wk after calving frequently
are more refractory to therapy than those cases occurring nearer to peak
lactation. In these cases, a long-acting insulin preparation given IM
at 150-200 IU/day may be beneficial. Insulin suppresses both adipose mobilization
and ketogenesis, but should be given in combination with glucose or a
glucocorticoid to prevent hypoglycemia. Use of insulin in this manner
is an extra-label, unapproved use. Other therapies that may be of benefit
in refractory ketosis cases are continuous IV glucose infusion and tube
feeding. (See also FATTY LIVER DISEASE OF CATTLE, Fatty Liver Disease
of Cattle .)
Prevention and Control:
Prevention of ketosis is via nutritional management. Body condition should
be managed in late lactation, when cows frequently become too fat. The
dry period is generally too late to reduce body condition score. Reducing
body condition in the dry period may even be counterproductive, resulting
in excessive adipose mobilization prepartum. A critical area in ketosis
prevention is maintaining and promoting feed intake. Cows tend to reduce
feed consumption in the last 3 wk of gestation. Nutritional management
should be aimed at minimizing this reduction. Controversy exists over
the optimal dietary characteristics during this period. It is likely that
optimal energy and fiber concentrations in rations for cows in the last
3 wk of gestation vary from farm to farm. Feed intake should be monitored
and rations adjusted to maximize dry matter and energy consumption in
late gestation. After calving, diets should promote rapid and sustained
increases in feed and energy consumption. Rations should be relatively
high in nonfiber carbohydrate concentration, but contain enough fiber
to maintain rumen health and feed intake. Neutral-detergent fiber concentrations
should usually be in the range of 28-30% with nonfiber carbohydrate concentrations
in the range of 38-41%. Dietary particle size will influence the optimal
proportions of carbohydrate fractions. Some feed additives, including
niacin, calcium propionate, sodium propionate, propylene glycol, and rumen-protected
choline, may be beneficial in preventing and managing ketosis. To be effective,
these supplements hould be fed in the last 2-3 wk of gestation, as well
as during the period of ketosis susceptibility.
2. Pregnancy Toxemia (sheep and goats):is attached. I like this handout which is from the Lincoln University Cooperative Extension Agency. Its comprehensible information for the layperson.
20. Why does overeating grain or other carbohydrates
cause bloat?
Ruminants produce large amounts of gas as a result of fermentation of
plant material in the rumen/reticulum. Rumen gas may only exit via one
route – the cardia and esophagus – by the process of eructation.
Ruminants have the capability to eructate several times more gas than
can be produced in the rumen; therefore, overproduction of gas is not
the problem. The real problem is the inability of the gas to exit the
rumen, either because something is interfering with eructation or the
gas is trapped inside the bubbles (foam.)
Practice Test